Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty explained

Updated November 2026

Antarctica is the only continent with no country in charge and no permanent inhabitants. Since 1961 it has been governed by the Antarctic Treaty, which sets the continent aside for peace and science. Today 58 countries are Parties to it.

A continent set aside for science

The treaty grew out of the International Geophysical Year of 1957–58, when scientists from many countries worked side by side in Antarctica (see History of the IPYs). Twelve countries whose scientists had been active there during the IGY signed the treaty in Washington on 1 December 1959: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. It entered into force on 23 June 1961.

Seven of those twelve (Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom) had claimed parts of Antarctica. The treaty did not settle those claims. Instead it froze them, which allowed countries with very different views to cooperate.

What the treaty says

The treaty is short: 14 articles. The key ones are:

Peace (Article I). "Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only." Military bases, maneuvers and weapons testing are banned, but military personnel and equipment may support science.
Freedom of science (Article II). Scientific investigation and cooperation, "as applied during the International Geophysical Year, shall continue."
Sharing (Article III). Countries exchange plans, scientists and results, and "scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available."
Claims frozen (Article IV). Nothing in the treaty gives up or supports a claim, and no new or enlarged claim may be made while it is in force.
No nuclear explosions or waste (Article V).
Area (Article VI). The treaty covers everything south of 60° South, including all ice shelves.
Inspection (Article VII). All areas, including stations, ships and aircraft, are open to inspection by observers named by the decision-making Parties.

Who belongs to the treaty

58Parties in total
29Consultative Parties (with a vote)
29Non-Consultative Parties
1961year of entry into force

Any member of the United Nations can accede, as can other states invited by the Consultative Parties. The original twelve signatories are Consultative Parties. Other countries gain that status by showing their interest in Antarctica through "substantial scientific research activity" there, such as setting up a scientific station or sending a scientific expedition. Only Consultative Parties take decisions. The most recent country to join was the United Arab Emirates, for which the treaty entered into force on 11 December 2024. Check the current list on the Secretariat's Parties page, as the number changes when countries accede.

How decisions are made

The Parties meet at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). It met about every two years from 1961 to 1994 and has met every year since 1994. Consultative Parties decide; Non-Consultative Parties may attend. Three bodies attend as observers: SCAR (the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research), CCAMLR (the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) and COMNAP (the association of national Antarctic programs). Invited experts include ASOC and IAATO.

The Madrid Protocol

The treaty itself says little about the environment. That gap was filled by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in Madrid on 4 October 1991 and in force since 1998. It:

designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science" (Article 2);
prohibits "all activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources, except for scientific research" (Article 7);
requires environmental impact assessment of planned activities, and has annexes on fauna and flora, waste disposal, marine pollution and protected areas (a sixth annex, on liability, is not yet in force);
created the Committee for Environmental Protection, an expert advisory body that meets each year alongside the ATCM.

The 2048 myth. You may read that the mining ban "expires" in 2048. The Treaty Secretariat says this is not correct. Neither the Protocol nor the Treaty has an end date. For the first 50 years after 1998, changing the Protocol needs the agreement of all Consultative Parties. After 2048, any Consultative Party may call for a conference to review how the Protocol works.

Research stations

Nobody lives in Antarctica permanently. The people there are scientists and support staff at research stations and field camps. Some stations are open all year; others only in the southern summer. Stations are run by national Antarctic programs. Their association, COMNAP, founded in 1988, has 34 member programs, which together cover almost all science and science support in Antarctica. COMNAP publishes an interactive map and list of facilities that marks which are open all year and which only in summer.

For example, the United States runs McMurdo Station, the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station and Palmer Station through the National Science Foundation's U.S. Antarctic Program.

For the science done at these stations, see Polar ice, Polar oceans and Polar wildlife.

Antarctica Day

Each year on 1 December, the anniversary of the treaty's signing, the polar community celebrates Antarctica Day. It is a good moment for a classroom activity on how a continent came to be shared; see Teaching resources.